Research
in Education
An Introduction

Research
in Education
An Introduction

Billy L. Turney
George P. Robb
North Texas State University

The Dryden Press Inc.
Hinsdale, Illinois

Copyright @ 1971 by The Dryden Press Inc.
All rights reserved
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 79-154269
ISBN: 0-03-089004-7 Cloth
ISBN: 0-03-089117-5 Paper
Printed in the United States of America
789 090 9876

Preface

This textbook has been designed and written primarily for use by the student who is taking his first course in educational research. In the development of the book we have assumed that the reader could be either a consumer or a potential producer of research, and we have striven to achieve what we believe is a proper balance of research theory and application. Although attention has been focused upon the student who is experiencing his initial formal contact with research methodology, we have not been unmindful of the fact that others might profit from use of the book. It may well serve as a useful reference for classroom teachers, counselors, or administrators who are interested in doing research in their schools but need a "refresher course."
As an introductory text, this book is, of necessity, limited in scope and depth. We feel, however, that no important areas of research are omitted as far as the beginning student is concerned. The language used throughout the book is reasonably nontechnical and concise. Numerous examples and illustrations have been drawn from the field of education in order to clarify important points and to enhance the reader's understanding of the essential principles, concepts, and techniques of research.
The sequence of the first five chapters roughly follows the steps that a researcher might be expected to take in conducting a study. Chapter I provides an introduction to research and stresses the importance of the spirit of scientific inquiry in research. Chapter 2 deals with the selection and evaluation of problems for research. Chapter 3 explains the essential features of a research proposal and the procedures for writing one. Chapters 4 and 5 concern the use of the library

vii

viii PREFACE

and the review of related literature, which are very important aspects of the research process.
The next five chapters discuss the characteristics of three common types of research, the processing of research data, statistical analysis of data, research bias, and various tools and techniques of data gathering. The reporting of educational research, which marks the final stage in the research process, is discussed in Chapter 11. This chapter is sufficiently detailed to suffice as a form book for writing a research report. Thus, the use of this textbook may obviate the need to acquire a separate manual in a research course. Finally, samples of a research proposal, research report, and abstract are presented in the last chapter. These samples are used simply as illustrations of how a completed proposal, report, and abstract might look rather than as models for a research project. The accompanying critiques also should be helpful to the student.
Several of the chapters have been edited from manuscript submitted by various professors of education and psychology at North Texas State University. We are indebted to these individuals for the use of their material and feel that their contributions are of inestimable value. The contributing authors are: R. C. Bradley, (Chapter 1), R. T Hinely (Chapter 2), Charles May, now at Indiana State University (Chapter 3), Benjamin Coody (Chapter 5), James W Turner and John Curry (Chapter 6), Earl Kooker (Chapter 8), Earl McCallon (Chapter 10), and John Plunkett (Chapter 11).
We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Gwendel Mulkey, Tarrant County junior College, in the preparation of the samples of the research proposal and report found in Chapter 12. The critiques of these samples were done most capably by Linda Mitchell Crocker, University of Florida. We are also appreciative of the valuable editorial and production assistance rendered by Roger Williams, Robert Ballinger, and Donna Conte of The Dryden Press.
We are indebted to the Literary Executor of the late Sir Ronald A. Fisher, F.R.S., to Dr. Frank Yates, F.R.S., and to Oliver and Boyd Ltd., Edinburgh, for permission to reprint Tables III and VI from their book Statistical Tables for Biological, Agricultural, and Medical Research, 6th ed., 1963.
It is hoped that the use of this textbook will go beyond providing an understanding of the methods and techniques of research, as important as this objective may be. We hope that the book will move students and educators toward a greater awareness of the value of the research process as a means of effecting improvement in education.

February 1971
Denton, Texas		 B. L. T.
G. P. R.

Contents

Prefacevii
1.Introduction 1

What Constitutes Research 2
The Scientific Approach to Research 3
Types of Research 7
Assessment of Research Potential 8

2. Selection and Evalution of a Problem11

Problem Origins11
Evaluation of a Problem16

3.The Research Proposal 21

Preparing the Research Proposal22
Procedures in Preparing Research Proposals22

4.The Use of the Library in Educational Research33

Books33
Periodicals40
Abstracts43
Newspapers44
Pamphlets44
Government Documents44
Educational Resources Information Center46

5.A Review of Related Literature49

Selection of Studies To Be Reported49

ix

xCONTENTS

Procedures for Reviewing the Literature51
Preparation of the Related Literature Report55

6.Types of Research59

Historical Research59
Descriptive Research62
Experimental Research65

7.Analysis and Treatment of Data71

Organization of Data71
Graphical Representation of Data73
Form of a Frequency Distribution76
Percentiles76
Computing Percentile Ranks78
Computing Percentiles79
Measures of Central Tendency80
Selection of Measures of Central Tendency81
Measures of Variability82
Computing Standard Scores85
Normal Frequency Distribution Curve86
Inferential Statistics88
Random Sampling89
Central Limit Theorem90
Confidence Intervals and Levels of Confidence90
Significance of Differences between Means92
Correlation95
Product-Moment Coefficient of Correlation97
Interpretation of a Correlation Coefficient99
Equation of a Regression Line100
Spearman Rank-Order Correlation101

8.Factors Affecting Research Results105

Sample Selection107
Measurement of Variables109
Variables Affecting Both Field Studies and Experiments112
Variables Affecting Field Studies114
Variables Affecting a Field Experiment116
Use of Control and Experimental Groups118
Statistical Tests of Hypotheses122
Questions Regarding Experimentation125
Application of Research as Related to Design126

CONTENTSxi

9.Tools and Techniques of Research129

Methods of Questioning130
Rating Scales and Methods135
The Observation Method142
Sociometric Techniques144
Tests and Inventories150
Basic Characteristics of Measurement Instruments154

10.Computational Aids for the Researcher161

Desk Calculators161
Electronic Digital Computer163
The Stored Program170

11.Reporting Educational Research173

General Content of the Report173
Style and Format177
Footnote Citations182
Tables186
Illustrations188
Bibliography188
Abstract189

Sample Pages 191

12.A Research Study Example221

Sample Research Proposal223
Critique of Sample Research Proposal241
Sample Research Report246
Critique of Sample Research Report295
Sample of an Abstract301
Critique of Sample Abstract304

Appendix305

Table A307
Table B308
Table C309
Table D310
Table E311

Index313

1
Introduction

Many of the educational practices used in schools today have grown out of activities that resemble research techniques. Undoubtedly, the history of the growth of these practices would show that they were found to be sound through chance, trial-and- error, and practical experience. Hence, as educators began to reason and apply information, to repeat and perfect methods of instruction, new facts and ideas not previously known were obtained. From these grass roots have sprung the many facets of growth in the educator's present knowledge of research.
All educators can benefit from the knowledge of the nature, techniques, and procedures of scientific research. In the first place, this knowledge is useful because these skills will enable classroom teachers and other professionals to utilize scientific methods in attacking their own practical problems. Secondly, research knowledge is essential because it can furnish school personnel with the information necessary to make objective decisions concerning curriculum, methods, administrative procedures, and so on. Thirdly, knowledge of research permits the educator to be both a consumer and producer of research. It seems logical to assume that those who borrow from the research reservoir will desire to contribute to the ever increasing supply of valid knowledge of education through research.
School personnel are in a key position to study the effects of new materials, methodology, and similar innovations on the learning process. Research that actively involves the educator in a problem that has meaning to him, insofar as the results can be directly applied to his teaching or administrative position, can contribute substantially to improvement of the educational process.

1

2INTRODUCTION

WHAT CONSTITUTES RESEARCH?

Through the ages learned men have sought to solve problems of society scientifically. A succession of scientists have been the pathfinders and lamplighters to our nation's progress. As a result of their research efforts man lives longer, enjoys more leisure, and has greater use of intellectual power than ever before.
The chief purposes for conducting research are: (1) to determine the status of phenomena (past and present); (2) to ascertain the nature, composition, and processes that characterize selected phenomena; (3) to trace growth, developmental history, change, and status of certain phenomena-, and (4) to study the cause-and-effect relationships among and between certain phenomena.
Although man has not yet devised any perfect method of finding solutions to problems deemed worthy of investigation, progress has been made. There has been a gradual transition from seeking knowledge based purely on custom, tradition, authority, and personal experience, to appealing for evidence based on reasoning and scientific inquiry.
As Hillway states:

No longer does man ascribe natural phenomena to supernatural influences, and no longer does he rely blindly upon accepted authority. He has developed an orderly system of searching for truth which, by basing conclusions upon factual evidence and by using logic as a means of showing relationships between related ideas, has given him better and more accurate answers to his many questions. This orderly system is what we call research.1
A more thorough understanding of what constitutes research may be obtained by examining experimental problems. McCall states that experimental problems can best be identified:
(1) by becoming a scholar in one or more specialties as early as possible; (2) by reading, listening, and working critically and reflectively; (3) by considering every obstacle an opportunity for the exercise of ingenuity instead of an insuperable barrier; (4) by starting an investigation and watching problems bud from it; and (5) by remembering those problems already found, that is, by keeping a systematic record of original ideas and problems.2
Thus, research is a formal, systematic, intensive process used in the investigation of a problem. In the educational realm, it may be carried on by an individual, team, or organization. It may be conducted in a class, school, or community. Research is not limited to a laboratory setting.

1 Tyrus Hillway, Introduction to Research (Cambridge, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin, 1956), p. 18.
2 W A. McCall, How to Experiment in Education (New York: Macmillan, 1925), pp. 7, 8.

THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO RESEARCH 3

THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO RESEARCH

Generally, the quest for truth takes a person to one of five major sources of evidence: (1) tradition; (2) learned authority; (3) personal experience; (4) logical reasoning; and (5) scientific investigation. A review of the history of the development of research technology will reveal that these sources are listed here chronologically. Because the last two sources offer the best prospects for new knowledge, understanding, and insight, the discussion here will be limited to "scientific inquiry."
The scientific method involves a double movement of thought. The investigator directs his attention from the partially known and oftentimes confused information learned from observation, previous investigations, reflective thinking, and so on, toward a meaningful whole or generalization. Secondly, he moves back from this suggested whole or generalization to the particular parts in order to connect these with one another in a meaningful pattern. The first of these movements is inductive; the second, deductive.3 The process of thinking is considered complete when the investigator moves to and from a meaning, with appropriate interaction of his reasoning processes occurring between the recollected consideration and far-reaching, general meanings. As Dewey succinctly put it:

While induction moves from fragmentary details (or particulars) to a connected view of a situation (universal), deduction begins with the latter and works back again to particulars, connecting them and binding them together.4
On the one hand induction is a movement toward the discovery of some binding principle, while on the other hand deduction is a movement toward the testing of this principle (for example, confirming, accepting, modifying). Insofar as the investigator is able to interpret isolated details and see them in the light of this organizing principle, he will find valid relationships.

Application of the Scientific Method

There is no special point at which an investigator declares he is using the scientific method. Nevertheless, he applies the scientific method in the beginning stages of the selection of his problem. He weighs evidence with respect to the problem to be studied and views its possibilities from several vantage points. He seeks answers to the following types of questions: "What does related research show?" "To what extent is this problem researchable?" "Can the problem be solved with present technical tools?" "Is it worth the time and effort essential to its ultimate exploration?" and "To what extent does this problem anchor itself in

3John Dewey, How We Think (Boston: D. C. Heath, 1911), pp. 79-100.
4John Dewey, How We Think, p. 87.

4INTRODUCTION

the already established laws and principles?" Unless the problem to be studied is expressed in some tentative form so that it can be thoroughly analyzed for revision purposes, it may never move from an emotional level to an intellectual statement worthy of investigation. Likewise, if the investigator does not use the procedures of scientific inquiry for the purpose of feeding information from established laws and principles back to his original theoretical problem, it is doubtful that it will be altered as dictated by the evidence.
In employing the use of the scientific method, the investigator starts with a hypothesis5 as a guide for determining what type of data to gather. On the basis of an analysis of the collected data, the hypothesis is accepted, modified, or refuted. It should be pointed out here that sometimes the hypothesis will not be stated in its final form until some of the facts are available for examination. Although the investigator's thoughts move back and forth among the following steps in the process of analysis of the problem, there is a logical sequence to the elements that comprise the scientific method in education:

Step 1. The investigator identifies and defines the problem.
Step 2. He formulates a testable hypothesis.
Step 3. He collects, organizes, tabulates, and analyzes his data.
Step 4. He formulates conclusions on the basis of his findings.
Step 5. He appraises these new conclusions in the light of future needs (educational implications).

Skillfully employed, these steps will help an investigator reach his objectives.

Inductive Reasoning

The inductive method is essentially the method of discovery. It moves from objects or keynote examples to the development of ideas. Generally it is believed that conclusions reached by deductive reasoning are true only if derived from tenable premises. Consequently, man has searched for a more thorough way of determining whether his observations arc justified. Inductive reasoning seems to be the answer to his quest, although it cannot be relied upon exclusively. Inductive reasoning, therefore, has been devised to complement deductive reasoning.
The investigator who collects information about respondents, conditions, or behaviors of a related group, may do so in order to establish generalizations relative to a larger group. This would be called imperfect induction. For example, to determine the number of children in a school who need to be assigned to a remedial reading class, the investigator can use each child in the entire school in his investigation. Since it is not always practical to examine all the instances

5 A tentative theory or supposition adopted for the purpose of explaining certain known conditions and providing a guide in the research process.

THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO RESEARCH 5

that might be considered in arriving at a generalization regarding a given group or class, the investigator wisely seeks to examine a smaller representative group.6 His findings might then be generalized to the total group represented by this smaller group.
If the size and representation of the sample are adequate, some inferences probably can be made with respect to the total group. An investigator who uses imperfect induction, however, must, recognize that some unexamined instances of a particular class may not agree with his conclusions, but where investigative procedures have been sound, reliable information results.

Deductive Reasoning

In deduction, the investigator reasons that whatever is true of all events in a group or class must also be true of any single instance that comes within its domain. The principle of deduction is: If A is true and B is true, then under certain specified conditions one can infer that C is true. To determine whether a particular instance or event under consideration logically falls within this principle of deduction, the investigator uses a device known to researchers as a syllogism, which in deductive reasoning consists of a major and a minor premise and a conclusion. A syllogism provides the researcher with a means of testing the validity of a particular conclusion. Definitive examples of four different types of syllogisms follow.

An Alternative
Syllogism		Either the car will be fixed or it will not go very far. (major premise)
The car has not been fixed. (minor premise)
Therefore, the car will break down soon. (conclusion)
A Categorical
Syllogism 		Men are mortal beings.
The President is a man.
Therefore, the President is mortal.
A Disjunctive
Syllogism 		It is not the case that it is both a snowy afternoon and a pleasant afternoon for the football game.
It is a snowy day.
Therefore, it is not a good afternoon for football
A Hypothetical
Syllogism 		If the courthouse is on fire, the archives are in danger.
The courthouse is on fire.
Therefore, the archives are in danger.

As shown in the examples above, arguments may involve alternative, categorical, disjunctive, and hypothetical propositions. It can be seen that each

6 This smaller group, which is a subset of the total group, is called a sample. A more detailed explanation of sample selection is found in Chapter 8.

6 INTRODUCTION

syllogism is labeled according to the type of proposition occurring in the major premise. If a person accepts the first two premises, he must also agree to the conclusion that would logically follow.
One of the limitations of deductive reasoning is the possibility of ambiguity, since deduction relies on verbal symbols that may not have the same meaning to every person. Another limitation is that one can only work from existing knowledge, and still another limitation is the possibility that the premise upon which a conclusion is to be drawn may not be true. Certainly one can draw conclusions from premises that have been declared valid, but what if the premises are not in accordance with reality? Consider the following example:

All research investigators hold master's degrees.
Mr. John Doe is a research investigator for a public school.
Therefore, Mr. John Doe holds a master's degree.
Based on the major premise, it would seem that Mr. Doe must hold a master's degree, but in reality Mr. Doe only holds graduate certification in his area of research. Hence, conclusions drawn from deductive arguments can only be as trustworthy as the premises from which they are derived.
The more the investigator uses the scientific processes of induction and deduction for regulating the conditions under which suggestions are allowed to spring up and develop, the more likely he will guide his thinking toward obtaining a working hypothesis. When care is taken to use systematic thinking while moving toward a hypothesis and then back again toward the facts, important connections will be seen. The connections may become premises (grounds, foundations, bases) and are said to support the conclusion. The movement toward building up the research hypothesis is known as inductive discovery and the movement toward developing, applying, and testing, is known as deductive proof.

The Scientific Method of Analysis

Of the many distinguishing features of scientific analysis, six characteristics seem most prominent: (1) Science is based on fact(s); (2) Science employs the principles of analysis as a fundamental procedure in the dealing with complex phenomena; (3) Science employs the use of hypotheses in the thinking involved; (4) Science promotes freedom from emotional bias; (5) Science involves the use of accurate and concise measurement; and (6) Science promotes systematized thinking. The scientific method has one characteristic that no other method of attaining knowledge has: self-correction. In elaborating upon the scientific approach Kerlinger has stated:

There are built-in checks all along the way to scientific knowledge. These checks are so conceived and used that they control and verify the scientist's activities and conclusions to the end of attaining dependable knowledge outside himself. Even if a

TYPES OF RESEARCH 7

hypothesis seems to be supported in an experiment, the scientist will test alternative hypotheses that, if also supported, may cast doubt on the first hypothesis.7
The research worker should not accept a given statement as true merely because at first glance it may seem tenable. Neither should self-imposed restrictions resulting from previous learning experiences, nor admonitions given by self-ppointed experts who decry, "This is the way these projects typically are done," become pressures to which the researcher succumbs. Any researcher after accepting his assumptions is obligated to base his beliefs on something; He must be able to explain the rationale behind his hypotheses. He then sets out to test these hypotheses.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

It is customary to classify research as either applied research or basic research. Applied research is directed toward the solution of an immediate, specific, practical problem. Basic research is concerned with the formulation of a theory or a contribution to the existing body of knowledge.
For example, If a researcher were to conduct a study using white rats to determine the effect of positive versus negative reinforcement on learning to run through a maze successfully, he would be conducting basic research. If he rewarded one group of rats with food pellets for correct turns in the maze, but gave an electrical shock to the group of rats making incorrect turns, he could then determine which group mastered the maze in a shorter period of time. Even though this information has no immediate application to motivation, it might be useful in the building of a theory concerning motivation and learning.
Whereas food and electrical shock might be impractical to use in the classroom, the researcher could conduct an experiment using praise and criticism as motivational factors in human learning. This type of experiment would be directed toward the solution of a practical problem and, thus, would be classified as applied research.
In addition to the broader classification of applied and basic research, nearly all studies may be classified as historical, descriptive, or experimental research. Their classification may be determined by posing the following questions:
1. Does the research deal with what once was? If it does, then it is historical research. The educational historian may seek either to produce an accurate description of unique events that have happened in the past or to suggest through the survey of these events fruitful generalizations from prior experiences that may act as controls for behavior in the present or future. His purpose is to produce

7 Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), pp. 7, 8.

8INTRODUCTION

evidence that will help us profit by the experiences of the past in the solution of current problems.
2. Does the research deal with what is? If it does, then it is descriptive research. Descriptive research is that process that is concerned with characterizing the features of situations, objects, or practices. It allows one to find out pertinent information about an existing situation. Descriptive research usually is thought of as an effort to determine current practices or status so that we may develop guidelines for future practices.
3. Does the research deal with what can be when certain factors are controlled? If it does, then quite likely some attempt is being made to establish cause and effect relationships in a controlled situation. Experimental research is an attempt to control all essential factors with the exception of one or more independent variables that can be manipulated, with the purpose of determining and measuring the effect of their operation under given circumstances. Once these effects are determined through demonstration, then true control of behavior or the cnvironment becomes possible.
These three types of research will be discussed more extensively in Chapter 6.

ASSESSMENT OF RESEARCH POTENTIAL

Generally, one undertakes his first research project as a graduate student in education. As the student assesses the feasibility of undertaking a particular project, he becomes aware of the brief time available for graduate study, the cost of carrying on a comprehensive research project, the limited professional training he has at the onset of the project, and the mass of related research he must review. University and college faculties may alleviate such difficulties by requiring students to select their problems for research as soon as possible, by providing more careful supervision to aid in the selection of a research problem, by coordinating the projects of several students that may overlap in objectives, methods, or subjects, and by providing subsidies for important and desirable types of research that otherwise would be beyond the budget of the typical graduate student.
Though the facts mentioned above are important and must be considered by all graduate students as external variables with which research workers must deal, some cffort must be channeled toward dealing with the six common shortcomings of graduate research as observed by Symonds: (1) Gathering of facts has been correlated inadequately with application of these facts to the educational program; (2) The background of information and understanding of the student is often too mcager and shallow in the area in which he wishes to explore ; (3) Fundamental assumptions often not explicitly recognized and understood. give the study a particular bias and make it of limited value, (4) Due to vested interests, certain groups (companies, foundations, organizations) who provide the graduate

ASSESSMENT OF RESEARCH POTENTIAL 9

student with money or material for research purposes, or both, expect the completed study to cast their product in a more favorable light; (5) The methods of investigation and the selection of the instruments to be used are often faulty; and (6) Technical faults in statistical methods selected are very common. An awareness of these shortcomings, which ultimately enables the investigator to avoid them, is a measure of research scholarship.8
A producer of research is first a consumer of research. He must be skilled in detecting bias, unfounded conclusions, inaccuracies, and so on, or these faults will appear in his own work. Those who write research papers recognize that the reader is likely to read with a critical eye and an informed mind. just as the classroom teacher grades his daily papers to find out whether pupils have answered the questions correctly, so does the professional evaluate research. The reporter of research must anticipate the questions that will arise in the mind of the analytical reader if his report is to be regarded as a scholarly contribution.
An important attribute of a researcher is the ability to be objective. He reports what he finds irrespective of his feelings about the results obtained. He reports all of what he finds. He does not present only the data that support a hypothesis while at the same time suppressing, camouflaging, or omitting conflicting information. Finally, a research worker must write so clearly and in such detail that his study may be replicated exactly. Therefore, an investigator owes his reader a thorough demonstration of the fact that all materials appearing in the "related literature" have been selected through the use of appropriate criteria. He also owes his reader evidence that the data and information compiled within the study can withstand the rigorous tests applied by trained research workers.

8 P. M. Symonds, "Common Faults in Graduate Research in Education," Journal of Educational Research, 27 (March 1934), pp. 481-492.